Types of Loads in Structural Design: A Complete Beginner’s Guide

Dead, Live, Wind & More: Understanding Structural Loads

Structural Load Types Explained with Real Examples 

What Is a Load in Structural Design?

In structural engineering, a load is any force that a building must resist. That includes the weight of the building itself, people, furniture, snow, wind, soil pressure, and even earthquakes. Every load creates internal stress in the structure. If you get the load wrong, the building fails. Period.

• Loads = forces or deformations that act on structures
• All loads cause stress and deflection
• Loads vary in direction, intensity, and duration

Beginner’s Guide to Load Types in Structural Design

Types of Loads in Structural Design: Full Course

The 3 Major Categories of Loads in Structural Design

1. Dead Loads (Permanent, Static Weights)
These are the unchanging weights that the building always carries — the structure itself.

• Includes: concrete slabs, beams, steel frames, masonry, flooring, HVAC units

• Must be estimated during early design, based on material densities and dimensions

• Wrong assumptions here → every other calculation fails

2. Live Loads (Movable, Variable Loads)
Anything not permanently attached and subject to movement or change.

• People, furniture, bookshelves, movable walls, storage loads

• Building codes define typical values:
  – e.g., 40 psf for residential floors,
  – 100 psf+ for assembly halls or libraries

• Critical: assume the worst-case usage, not the current one

3. Environmental Loads (External & Dynamic)
Forces from nature that act outside or through the building — often irregular and regional.

• Wind pressure, snow accumulation, thermal expansion, seismic shaking, flooding

• Requires dynamic analysis and local code compliance

• Varies dramatically:
  – Snow loads in Alaska vs Arizona
  – Seismic loads in California vs New York
  – Wind uplift on coastal roofs vs inland zones

Wind Loads

What Wind Really Does to Structures:

Wind doesn’t just push — it pulls, twists, and uplifts.

• Lateral force: pushes walls horizontally

• Uplift: pulls roofs and overhangs upward (especially gables and light roofs)

• Suction/Pressure difference: creates uneven forces on leeward and windward sides

• Torsion: can twist asymmetrical or irregular buildings

Which Buildings Are Most at Risk?

• Tall structures (offices, towers): large surface area = large wind force

• Lightweight buildings (warehouses, steel sheds): low mass = more uplift risk

• Poorly braced structures: vulnerable to racking or shear failures

What Determines Wind Load Intensity?

● Building height → Taller = higher wind pressure
● Exposure category → Open fields = stronger gusts than urban zones
● Terrain roughness → Hills and buildings slow wind; flat ground doesn't
● Geographic wind speed maps → Refer to ASCE 7 or your local building code

Example:

• A 30-ft home in an open flat field in Kansas will face greater wind loads than a 3-story apartment in a dense city like Boston.

Design Considerations:

• Use shear walls, cross-bracing, or moment frames to resist lateral loads

• Secure roof trusses with hurricane ties or uplift straps

• Calculate net uplift pressures on roof systems and design anchorage accordingly

• Always check local wind speed requirements (e.g., 115 mph in many U.S. zones, 140+ mph in coastal areas)

Snow & Rain Loads

▪ Snow Loads

Snow can add tons of weight to a roof—literally.

Key Factors:

• Ground snow load (Pg): defined by region (check ASCE 7 or local code)

• Roof shape and slope: flat or low-pitched roofs accumulate more snow

• Exposure: wind-scoured roofs vs. drift-prone sheltered zones

• Thermal conditions: heated buildings shed snow; unheated ones don’t

• Drift and accumulation: valleys, step-downs, and parapets trap snow

Example:
A flat warehouse roof in Minnesota might face snow loads of 30–50 psf. A pitched roof in Oregon’s milder zone might only need to resist 10–20 psf.

What to Watch For:

• Asymmetric snow drift → overloads on one side

• Ice damming → water infiltration and hidden load zones

• Repeated freeze/thaw → structural fatigue in roof connections

▪ Rain Loads

Rain rarely collapses roofs—but poor drainage can.

Key Issues:

• Flat or low-slope roofs: at risk of ponding (standing water)

• Blocked drains or undersized scuppers = backup and overload

• Ponding instability: more water = more sagging = more water (vicious cycle)

• Roof deflection must be checked to avoid long-term sag and pooling

How Codes Handle It:

• ASCE 7 defines rain load as a live load

• Roofs must be designed to hold rainfall if drains are blocked or slow

• A clogged drain on a 5,000 sq ft flat roof in a heavy storm can lead to 25,000+ pounds of water weight

Design Solutions:

• Provide secondary (emergency) drainage pathways

• Use tapered insulation or sloped joists for drainage

• Avoid large flat zones without intermediate supports or scuppers

• Design for worst-case accumulation, not just averages

Seismic Loads

Earthquakes don’t just shake the ground — they shift entire buildings sideways, up, down, and out of sync. That’s what seismic loads account for.

● What Are Seismic Loads?

Seismic loads are the inertial forces generated when the ground moves and the building lags behind. It’s not the quake itself that breaks buildings—it’s the building’s own mass resisting sudden motion.

● What Factors Affect Seismic Loads?

• Building mass → Heavier structures = larger inertial forces

• Ductility → How much deformation a structure can take without snapping

• Soil conditions → Soft soil amplifies ground motion; rock is more stable

• Seismic zone → Defined by local hazard maps (e.g. USGS, Eurocode seismicity levels)

● How Are They Handled in Design?

Designers must allow buildings to move safely and dissipate energy without collapsing. That means:

• Shear walls → Resist lateral loads (concrete, reinforced masonry)

• Moment-resisting frames → Let the building flex while holding together

• Seismic bracing → Diagonals, K-braces, or eccentrics to resist shear

• Base isolators → Let building float during motion (for hospitals, high-risk use)

● What the Codes Say

Seismic design is code-mandated in most countries, with region-specific hazard maps:

• IBC (International Building Code) → Required in the U.S.

• ASCE 7 → Defines seismic loads, importance factors, and response spectra

• Eurocode 8 → Governs European seismic design

• NBC Canada → Includes seismic hazard zones and structural response factors

⚠ Real Risk, Real Cost

• A 10-story concrete frame in Los Angeles can face base shear forces of 500,000+ lbs during a major quake

• Without proper bracing, soft-story collapses (e.g. parking garages, apartment podium levels) are common

Soil & Foundation Loads

Foundations don’t just sit there—they’re constantly dealing with the shifting, pressing, and swelling forces of the earth below.

Here are the main soil-related load types every designer must account for:

● Lateral Earth Pressure

Where it shows up:
Retaining walls, basement walls, underground parking

What it does:
Pushes sideways against walls from soil buildup. Gets worse when the soil is wet or backfilled poorly.

What to check:

• Use at-rest, active, or passive pressure models depending on wall movement

• Poor drainage or clay soils = higher pressure

• Walls need proper thickness, footing size, and sometimes geogrid tie-backs

Mistake to avoid:
Backfilling with heavy, wet clay without drainage = cracked or collapsed basement walls.

● Hydrostatic Pressure

Where it shows up:
Below-grade structures near water tables (basements, tanks, elevator pits)

What it does:
Water exerts constant pressure on walls and slabs. Even light water can cause major pressure over time.

How to deal with it:

• Install proper waterproofing membranes

• Use drainage layers (gravel + perforated pipe)

• Design for worst-case groundwater levels—not just dry-season conditions

Sign of trouble:
Efflorescence, seepage stains, bowed concrete walls = warning signs you're fighting hydrostatic pressure.

● Settlement Loads

Where it shows up:
Any building with poor soil prep or inconsistent subsurface conditions

What it does:
Soil compresses under the weight of the building. If uneven = differential settlement = cracked walls, tilted floors, doors that don’t close.

How to prevent it:

• Conduct soil borings and lab tests

• Use deep foundations (piers, piles) for weak or compressible soils

• Consider load transfer mats or geofoam in special cases

Pro Tip:
Never design a foundation without knowing the soil bearing capacity. “Eyeballing” it leads to millions in repair.

● Frost Heave & Expansive Soils

Where it shows up:
Cold climates (frost) or areas with clay-rich, moisture-sensitive soils (like Texas, Alberta)

What it does:
Frost expands soil in winter → lifts and cracks slabs.
Clay expands with moisture → swells, then shrinks when dry = movement.

What to do:

• Go deeper than frost line for footings

• Use non-expansive fill or soil stabilization

• Design floating slabs or use moisture barriers where needed

Watch For:
Slab cracks, drywall pops, sticking windows—all signs of seasonal soil movement.

Bottom Line:
Soil isn’t passive—it fights back. Ignoring these loads doesn’t just cause cracks; it wrecks buildings from the ground up. Smart engineers treat the soil like a live force and design every foundation with respect for what’s underneath.

Impact & Blast Loads

Impact and blast loads are sudden, high-intensity forces that act on a structure over a short time—usually less than a second.

● What Causes Them?

• Vehicle collisions (into columns, barriers, or buildings)

• Equipment drops during construction or operation

• Explosions (accidental or intentional)

• Falling debris during earthquakes or demolition

• Shock waves from nearby blasts (military or industrial)

● Why It Matters

These loads can cause localized failure or total collapse—especially if the structure wasn’t designed to handle sudden, concentrated energy. Unlike normal static loads, impact forces transfer energy rapidly, sometimes triggering progressive failure.

● How Engineers Respond

• Use of sacrificial cladding or energy-absorbing barriers

• Reinforced concrete with high ductility

• Shear connectors and anchored joints to resist separation

• Redundancy in load paths so one failure doesn’t bring down the rest

● Where It Applies

• Warehouses, factories, and docks (heavy machinery movement)

• Parking garages (vehicle impacts, floor drop risks)

• Military and secure government buildings (blast resistance)

• Urban buildings near high-traffic roads or zones with riot potential

● Final Tip

Even for non-military buildings, consider impact zones—like garage walls or loading bays—as high-risk. Reinforce these areas even if your main structure is standard.

Construction Loads: Temporary but Dangerous

These loads only exist during the construction phase—but they’ve caused real disasters when mismanaged.

What Counts as Construction Load?

• Weight of cranes, tools, and heavy equipment

• Formwork and falsework for concrete

• Temporary scaffolding and support structures

• Workers and material stockpiles on floors not yet fully cured

Why It Matters

A half-built structure isn’t ready to carry full loads yet. If you overload a slab before the concrete reaches strength or remove formwork too early, the building can partially or fully collapse.

What Professionals Do Right:

• Calculate load staging and curing times

• Use shoring and bracing for extra support

• Follow phased loading schedules

• Inspect formwork tightness and structural readiness daily

Real Example:

In 2004, a parking garage in New Jersey collapsed mid-construction because temporary shoring wasn’t properly placed. 4 floors pancaked, injuring workers and halting the project for months.

Load Combinations & Safety Factors

In the real world, buildings never deal with just one load at a time. A beam might hold the dead weight of a slab, people walking across it (live load), and wind pushing sideways — all at once.

● Why Combine Loads?

Because structures respond to the total stress they’re under. If you only design for one load at a time, you’re ignoring the full picture. That’s how failures happen.

● What Codes Say

Building codes like ASCE 7, NBC, and Eurocode provide standard load combinations to use in design. These combinations account for:

• The likelihood of loads happening together

• The magnitude and direction of forces

• The material’s behavior under combined stress

Example (ASCE 7):

1.2 * Dead Load + 1.6 * Live Load + 0.5 * Wind Load

This means you increase each load by a certain factor to account for uncertainty.

● Safety Factors: The Backup Plan

Even if your math is perfect, things go wrong:

• Materials aren’t uniform

• Workmanship varies

• Loads change over time

Safety factors are baked into codes to handle this. They add a margin of error so your building doesn’t collapse if conditions shift or something was misjudged.

Typical Factors:

• Concrete = 1.5

• Steel = 1.67

• Soil bearing = 2.0 to 3.0 (depends on uncertainty)

● Two Types of Design Approaches

1. Allowable Stress Design (ASD):

   • Keep stress below a reduced material limit

   • Older method, still used in residential/light structures

2. Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD):

   • Amplifies loads, reduces resistance

   • More common in modern codes for steel, concrete, bridges

Designing for one load isn’t enough.
You must consider how dead, live, wind, snow, seismic, soil, and temperature interact — then back it up with proper safety margins.

This is what separates a safe building from a ticking time bomb.

PART II

Types of Loads in Structural Design: Full Guide for Engineers

Understand structural loads and how they affect design. Includes examples, diagrams, and key code references for students and professionals.

This guide covers all structural load types with clear explanations and real-world relevance for civil and structural engineers.

The Role of Loads in Beam, Slab, and Foundation Design

Loads aren’t just numbers. They decide everything—how big your beams are, how thick your slab needs to be, and how deep your foundation must go. Misjudge a load, and the whole structure suffers.

● Beams: Carrying the Weight Across Spans

Beams transfer loads from floors, roofs, and walls to columns or foundations. Their design depends on:

• Type of load: Dead, live, snow, seismic, etc.

• Span length: Longer span = larger bending moment = deeper beam

• Support type: Simply supported vs. fixed makes a huge difference

• Material strength: Steel, wood, and concrete behave differently under load

🛠 Example: A residential beam supporting a second floor may be sized for 40 psf live load + 10 psf dead load. But a warehouse beam could face forklifts, racking systems, or impact loads—requiring far more depth and reinforcement.

Common Mistake: Designers underestimate concentrated loads (like stair landings or heavy tanks) and oversimplify them as distributed. This leads to cracking or deflection.

● Slabs: Spanning Without Deflection

Slabs carry both their own weight and whatever walks or rests on them—furniture, people, water tanks, rooftop gardens.

Key factors include:

• Live Load per code (e.g., 40 psf for homes, 100 psf for libraries)

• Point Loads: Safe or unsafe concentrations from columns or posts

• Punching Shear Zones around supports—often where failures start

• Two-way vs. One-way Slab Behavior

Design Tip: Don’t treat slabs like simple sheets. Always check shear zones, long-term deflection, and rebar spacing.

● Foundations: Final Load Catcher

All loads eventually land here. Your foundation must support everything above—including soil and water pressure.

You need to consider:

• Total Load from Structure: Sum of all dead + live + environmental loads

• Soil Bearing Capacity: How much weight the soil can handle (kPa or psf)

• Settlement Behavior: Differential settlement causes cracks and tilting

• Frost Lines and Water Table: Critical in cold or flood-prone regions

Example: A 2-story home on clay soil may need a 24" wide strip footing. But the same home on loose sand may require deep piles or a raft slab.

Load Path Summary (Visual Description)

Roof snow load → Slab → Beam → Column → Foundation → Soil

If any link in that chain is undersized or miscalculated, the load doesn’t transfer safely—and cracks, bending, or full collapse can occur.

Pro Tips for Students & Junior Architects

• Always calculate tributary areas when sizing beams and slabs

• Don’t assume uniform load—real structures rarely behave like textbooks

• Understand live load reduction rules for large-span framing

• Remember: slabs span short direction first (unless post-tensioned)

FIELD PICK
Book: Design of Reinforced Concrete by Jack C. McCormac
A trusted classic that breaks down beam and slab design with clear examples.

How to Calculate Structural Loads in Civil Engineering

Structural design always starts with loads. If you get the loads wrong, everything else—materials, sizing, detailing—will follow the wrong logic. 

Here's a practical breakdown of how professional engineers calculate structural loads step by step.

1. Know the Building Type and Use

Before anything else, define:

• Occupancy (residential, office, school, warehouse)

• Material system (wood frame, concrete, steel)

• Geographic location (snow zone? seismic zone? wind exposure?)

Why it matters: This controls your design criteria under building codes (like NBCC or ASCE 7).

2. Determine Dead Loads (Self-Weight)

Dead loads are calculated from the actual weight of building components:

How to do it:

• Get weights from material handbooks or code tables.

• Multiply unit weight × thickness × tributary area.

Example:
A 6" concrete slab (150 pcf density) over a 10x10 ft area:

Load = 150 × 0.5 ft × 100 sf = 7,500 lb = 75 psf

3. Add Live Loads (Occupancy Loads)

Use standard live loads from code:

• Residential floor: 40 psf

• Office floor: 50 psf

• Stairs: 100 psf

• Roofs: Varies (20–30 psf + snow)

These are not exact weights, but minimums you must design for.

Pro tip: Add concentrated loads if required (e.g. safes, storage).

4. Include Environmental Loads

These require site-specific data from code maps and standards.

Wind Load (per ASCE 7 or NBCC):

• Get basic wind speed (V)

• Determine exposure category

• Use wind pressure formulas:

q = 0.00256 × Kz × Kzt × Kd × V²

Snow Load:

• From code ground snow load maps

• Adjust for:

  • Roof slope

  • Warm/cold roof

  • Exposure

  • Importance factor

Seismic Load:

• Based on building weight, site class, seismic zone

• Use equivalent static force method:

V = Cs × W

• Where Cs = seismic response coefficient, W = total seismic weight

5. Determine Load Combinations

Use prescribed combinations to combine multiple types of loads.

Example combo (ASCE 7):

• 1.2 × Dead + 1.6 × Live

• 1.2 × Dead + 1.0 × Wind + 0.5 × Live

• 0.9 × Dead ± 1.0 × Wind

These provide safety margins for worst-case scenarios.

Note: Not all loads act together. Use logic and code rules.

6. Apply Tributary Areas

Every beam or slab only “sees” a portion of the total building load.

• Tributary width = half the span to adjacent supports

• Multiply by span length and load to get force

Example:
Beam supports 12 ft of tributary width with 50 psf total load:

Load = 12 ft × 1 ft × 50 psf = 600 lb/ft

7. Analyze the Structural System

Use tools like:

• Free-body diagrams for quick estimates

• Structural analysis software (ETABS, SAP2000, STAAD) for complex frames

Calculate:

• Shear

• Bending moment

• Deflection

Match your calculated internal forces to member capacity using design codes (CSA, ACI, AISC).

Pro Tips for Students & New Engineers

• Don’t guess loads — get the actual numbers from the code.

• Always apply tributary logic — wrong assumptions = wrong beam sizing.

• Use diagrams early — sketch force paths to visualize.

• Validate by hand before trusting software results.

• Label units carefully — psf (area) vs plf (linear) mistakes are common.

• Keep checklists — always include dead, live, snow, wind, seismic.

Real-World Calculation Example

Let’s say you're designing a simple steel beam in a residential home (floor span = 12 ft).

Dead Load:

• Joists + subfloor + finishes: 12 psf

• Tributary width: 8 ft
  → 12 psf × 8 ft = 96 plf

Live Load:

• Residential floor: 40 psf × 8 ft = 320 plf

Total Load:
= 96 + 320 = 416 plf

Load Combination:
1.2 × Dead + 1.6 × Live
= 1.2×96 + 1.6×320 = 115.2 + 512 = 627.2 plf

Design your beam to resist 627.2 plf over 12 ft span.

Gravity vs. Lateral Loads: What Every Designer Should Know

In structural design, every force acting on a building falls into one of two camps: gravity loads or lateral loads. Confusing the two—or ignoring either—can lead to major design flaws, serviceability issues, or outright collapse.

This section breaks down what they are, how they behave, and why they matter.

Gravity Loads (Vertical)

These push downward due to weight or mass. They’re relatively straightforward, but don’t underestimate them—bad gravity load assumptions cause deflection, sagging, or punching failures.

Includes:

• Dead Loads: Permanent — the structure’s own weight

• Live Loads: Temporary — people, furniture, snow, rain

• Construction Loads: Temporary — during building process

• Settlement Loads: From soil compressing under building

Design Impacts:

• Affect slabs, beams, columns, and foundations

• Calculated in psf (pounds per square foot) or plf (pounds per linear foot)

• Typically resisted vertically, transferred through gravity load paths down to the soil

Example Failure:

A residential slab-on-grade fails due to underestimated dead + live load = cracked floor + wall separation.

Lateral Loads (Horizontal)

These act sideways, often unpredictably. They're harder to model, and require stiffness, bracing, and ductility in the structure.

Includes:

• Wind Loads

• Seismic Loads

• Earth Pressure (soil pushing on retaining walls)

• Blast / Impact Loads

• Hydrostatic Pressure (groundwater on basement walls)

Design Impacts:

• Affect bracing systems, shear walls, moment frames

• Require horizontal load paths and special detailing

• Often govern serviceability (sway limits, comfort, facade stability)

Example Failure:

2000 Commonwealth Ave collapse (Boston, 1971) triggered by a punching shear failure, but amplified by lack of lateral redundancy.

What Makes Them Different

Why This Division Matters

• Loads travel differently → Gravity goes down; lateral tries to push or tip structures sideways.

• Structural systems are separate → You can’t rely on slabs or columns alone to resist wind or earthquake.

• Codes treat them separately → Load combinations must account for both directions and their interaction.

Tips for Students & Young Designers

• Don’t assume “weight” is all you need to worry about.

• Check that your structure has horizontal resistance paths, not just vertical support.

• Lateral load design becomes critical in tall, narrow, or open-frame buildings.

• Always confirm how load paths shift during wind/seismic events.

• Gravity systems resist failure; lateral systems resist collapse.

FAQ

1. What are the main types of loads in structural design?

The main load categories are: Dead, Live, Wind, Snow, Seismic, Earth pressure, and Impact loads.

2. What is a dead load?

Dead loads are permanent, immovable weights like walls, floors, roofs, and structural elements.

3. What is a live load?

Live loads are temporary or movable loads—people, furniture, vehicles, equipment—anything that changes over time.

4. How do I calculate dead loads?

Multiply a material’s unit weight (e.g., concrete at 25 kN/m³) by its volume or area.

5. How do live load values vary?

They differ by building use: homes ≈ 40 lb/ft², assembly areas much higher.

6. Why factor loads in structural design?

Building codes require load factors to ensure margins of safety (e.g., 1.2×DL + 1.6×LL).

7. What is wind load?

A lateral force from wind on roofs and walls calculated per code-based standards .

8. What is snow load?

Weight of snow on roofs—very location-dependent and code-prescribed .

9. What is seismic load?

Earthquake-induced forces; dynamic loads considered in seismic zones.

10. What does earth pressure mean?

Force from soil on foundation walls, retaining walls, or basements.

11. What are impact loads?

Sudden or dynamic forces from machinery, vehicles, or accidental strikes .

12. How many load types are there?

Typically seven: dead, live, wind (vertical + horizontal), snow, seismic, earth pressure.

13. What load types act on foundations?

Dead, live, lateral soil pressure, and sometimes hydrostatic water pressure.

14. How do you design for uplift (e.g., wind)?

Usually wind + dead load causes maximum uplift; sometimes wind + live + dead.

15. What are load combinations?

Various factored load scenarios (e.g., 1.2 DL + 1.6 LL + 0.5 Wind) required by codes.

16. How do I handle load combinations?

Use code tables (IBC, Eurocode) with specified factors for each load type.

17. What's an impact load vs. live load?

Though live loads can move, impact loads are sudden—like dropped tools or machinery vibrations.

18. Are thermal loads a concern?

Yes—temperature changes can cause expansion or contraction, affecting structure.

19. What are ponding loads?

Weight from water pooling on flat roofs—an environmental load to account for.

20. How do I estimate load from furniture?

Use live load tables per occupancy—e.g., residential ≈1.6 kN/m² (~40 lb/ft²) .

21. What is hydrostatic pressure load?

Water pressure against basement walls or retaining structures during flooding or high groundwater .

22. What is lateral earth pressure?

Soil pushes sideways on walls—calculated via soil mechanics principles.

23. What is seismic load?

Dynamic forces from earthquakes—code-based zones mandate calculations .

24. How are wind loads calculated?

Using wind speed, exposure, height, and shape per national code formulas .

25. Why is accurate load calc important?

To avoid unsafe under-design or costly over-design—key to safety and efficiency .

References & Sources

🇨🇦 Canada (NBC, Earthquake, Snow/Wind Data)

• National Building Code of Canada (NBC 2020)
  https://nrc.canada.ca/en/certifications-evaluations-standards/codes-canada/codes-canada-publications/national-building-code-canada-2020

• NBC 2020 Seismic Hazard Tool (Ground motion data for design)
  https://www.seismescanada.rncan.gc.ca/hazard-alea/interpolat/nbc2020-cnb2020-en.php

• Seismic Hazard Maps for Canada (NBC 2020)
  https://www.earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/hazard-alea/zoning-zonage/NBCC2020maps-en.php

🇺🇸 United States (ASCE, FEMA, NIST)

• ASCE 7-22 – Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures
  https://www.asce.org/publications-and-news/codes-and-standards/asce-sei-7-22

• FEMA Earthquake Design Manual for Buildings (FEMA P-749)
  https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-08/fema_p749.pdf

• NIST: Load Combination Requirements – ASCE 7-10 Overview
  https://www.nist.gov/publications/load-combination-requirements-asce-standard-7-10-new-developments

• FEMA: Earthquake Performance Levels and Retrofitting
  https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_earthquake-retrofitting-homeowners_2021.pdf

Global Codes & Euro Standards

• Eurocode 8: Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance (PDF overview)
  https://eurocodes.jrc.ec.europa.eu/doc/WS_2008/EN1998_Summary.pdf

• EN 1990: Eurocode – Basis of Structural Design (free access)
  https://eurocodes.jrc.ec.europa.eu/showpage.php?id=138